On the concept of inclusion/exclusion as an unresolved response to social differentiation in the work of Niklas Luhmann

Abstract

This article critically analyzes the evolution of the theory of social differentiation within the sociological tradition, examining the transition from classical models to the contemporary systemic perspective. Through a methodology of theoretical and conceptual review, it initially examines Émile Durkheim’s contributions on the division of labor and Talcott Parsons’ on role differentiation, identifying them as the foundations that enabled the shift toward the General Theory of Social Systems. Subsequently, the study delves into Niklas Luhmann’s proposal, which radicalizes the concept by defining modernity as a functionally differentiated society operated by autopoietic communication, introducing the inclusion/exclusion distinction as a code of access to partial systems. The primary objective is to highlight the interpretative gaps of the Luhmannian approach regarding social inequality. The analysis reveals that the inclusion/exclusion form lacks operational closure and omits a spatiotemporal and material dimension, thereby rendering invisible both territory and the impact of informal networks on the periphery of modernity. It is concluded that Luhmann’s proposal remains unfinished in this regard; therefore, a methodological need is posed to formulate a joint theoretical development that articulates functional differentiation with interaction systems (based on the presence/absence code) to accurately describe the materiality and spatiality of current social exclusion.